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| The Founding of Rome |
The Founding of Rome is very much embroiled in myth.
Traces found by archaeologists of early settlements of the Palatine Hill date
back to ca 750 BC.
This ties in very closely to the established legend that Rome was founded on 21
April 753 BC. Which was traditionally celebrated in Rome with the festival of
Parilia.
The founding legends exist - Romulus and Remus and Aeneas.
Rather than contradict each other, the tale of Aeneas adds to that of Romulus
and Remus.
King Numitor of Alba Longa was ejected by his younger brother Amulius. To do
away with any further possible pretenders to his usurped throne, Amulius
murdered Numitor's sons and forced Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silvia, to become a
vestal virgin. (Vestal virgins were priestesses to the goddess Vesta and were
expected to guard their virginity in the goddess' honour on pain of death.)
However Mars, the god of war became enchanted by her beauty and has his way with
her while she slept. As a result of this Rhea Silvia bore twins, Romulus and
Remus.
An enraged Amulius had Rhea Silvia thrown into the river Tiber where she was
caught beneath the waves by the river god who married her.
The twins were set adrift on the river in a reed basket. They floated downstream
until the basket was caught in the branches of a fig tree.
This was where they were found by a she-wolf who suckled them (wolves are sacred
to Mars) until a shepherd found them.
Another version of the same story tells of the shepherd finding them and taking
them to his wife, who had just lost a stillborn child and who breast fed them.
The tale says the shepherd's wife was a former prostitute.
Which one of the two versions is the original is hard to tell. In Latin lupa
means both 'she-wolf' and 'prostitute'.
As the two boys had grown to men in the care of the couple, they were told of
their true origins. Amulius was subsequently slain in battle and Numitor was
restored to his throne.
The twins decided to found a new city close to where they had been washed
ashore, caught by the fig tree.
Reading omens of the flight of birds they decided to build their city on
Palatine Hill and that Romulus should be King.
Romulus took to marking the city's boundaries with a plough drawn by a white
bull and a white cow.
Remus however leapt over the furrow, either in jest or derision. Romulus lost
his temper and killed his brother.
The new city, little more than a small settlement, had almost no women. So,
determined to solve this problem, Romulus invited the neighbouring tribe of the
Sabines to a harvest festival. Once their guests had arrived the Romans though
chose not to entertain them but far more to abduct at swordpoint 600 Sabine
daughters.
If the tale of Romulus and Remus appears the more popular Roman founding tale
today, then the tale of Aeneas, harking back to yet earlier times, was perhaps
the more popular in the days of the Roman Empire. In fact through Virgil the Aeneid
became the national epic of the Roman empire and the most famous poem of the
Roman era.
Aeneas was to have been a hero fighting the Greeks in the Trojan wars. The son
of Venus and a mortal father he escaped as the great city of Troy was sacked and
after quite an odyssey he landed in Latium through which the river Tiber flows.
Aeneas married the daughter of King Latinus, only to aggrieve King Turnus of
Rutuli who himself had his eye on her. As usual in ancient tales, there ensued a
war for the princess between Turnus and Aeneas, who was by then supported by
King Tarchon of the Etruscans. Naturally Aeneas, son of Venus, was triumphant.
The sack of Troy is dated to around 1220 BC. To fill the years from Aeneas to
Romulus the Romans therefore were required to produce a string of fictional
Kings to make the tale work. This was done across all the generations with some
ease from Ascanius, son of Aeneas to Numitor the
As such the Latins settled in the wider area of Rome around 1000 BC. Though those early settlements were not to be mistaken for anything like a city. They kept pigs, herded sheep, goats, cattle and lived in primitive huts.
So how could such archaic beginnings ever lead to a city of power which would rule the world ? The rise of Rome was certainly not inevitable, but it had many advantages right from the start. Rome lies only a few miles from the sea with all its possibilities of trade. It lies central to the Italian peninsula, which in turn lies central to the entire Mediterranean Sea. Italy is guarded by the Alps to the North and by the sea all around. Add to this the influence of the Greeks which were settling Italy, founding cities like Cumea, and hence bringing advanced civilization to the country and you have a place with lots of potential. From the Greeks the Romans learnt fundamental skills such as reading and writing, even their religion is almost entirely derived from Greek mythology. i.e. for Jupiter write Zeus, Mars is Ares, Venus is Aphrodite, etc... If the Greeks settled to the south of them, then the Roman had the Etruscans to the north. Etruria was predominantly an urban society, drawing its considerable wealth from seaborne trade. Were the Etruscans rather extravagant people, they were generally seen by the more hardy Romans to be decadent and weak. While being distinctly unique in their right the Etruscans too had very much developed from the more advanced and civilized cultures of the east, owing much of their culture to the Greeks. At around 650 to 600 BC the Etruscans crossed the Tiber and occupied Latium. It is through this, so one believes, that the settlement on the Palatine Hill was brought together with the settlements on surrounding hills, either in an attempt to fend off the invaders, or, once conquered, by the Etruscan master who sought to rule their kingdom via a structure of city states. It is at this point that the first known Kings appear. Always assuming that the likes of Romulus were to be seen as myth.
| The Roman Kings |
Historical details are still too obscure for any definite records of a Roman
state which is still half mythical.
But it was under the Roman Kings that the Roman ability to create an empire of
sorts first came to the fore, even though any original intentions will hardly
have been of an imperial nature.
In all there was said to have been seven kings of Rome covering a period of over two hundred years.
The first king of Rome was the mythical Romulus, the fabled founder, was the
first.
To him is attributed the founding, the extension to four of the Roman hill, -
the Capitoline, Aventine, Caelian and Quirinal -, and the infamous rape of the
Sabine women.
The second king of Rome, Numa Pompilius, owing to the influence of his adviser, the nymph and prophetess Egeria, enjoyed a peaceful reign.
The third king, however, Tullius Hositilius, was responsible for the
destruction of Alba Longa and the removal of its inhabitants to Rome.
With the literal destruction of this opponent they took over the sacred
festivals of Latium and all the regional prestige and status that came with it.
The fourth king, Ancus Marcius, extended the city further, built the first bridge across the across the Tiber and founded Ostia at the mouth of that river to serve Rome as a seaport.- All evidence of the city's increasing power.
The fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus, was an Etruscan, though how he secured his kingship is unknown. He continued the work of conquest, but found time to build the first sewer, the Cloaca Maxima, laid out the Circus Maximus, and began to erect on the Capitoline Hill a great temple to Jupiter.
The sixth king, Servius Tullius, was a celebrated monarch of great achievements. He made the division of the people into tribes and classes, thus setting up a constitution in which wealth was the dominant consideration. Also he is said to have enlarged the city by building a wall around it, five miles in circumference with nineteen gates, embracing all the seven hills of Rome. He transferred the regional festival of Diana from Aricia to the Aventine Hill of Rome. Shortly afterwards a massive temple of ca. 60 metres length and 50 width (begun by Tarquinius Priscus) was dedicated on the Capitoline Hill to Jupiter.
The seventh king, Tarquinius Superbus, was Rome's last. He continued with great vigour the work of extending the power of the city, and the founding of colonies by him was the beginning of Rome's path to supremacy of the world. But on other matters Tarquinius was less politically astute. He irritated the people by the burdens he placed upon them. And when his son Sextus outraged Lucretia, the wife of a prominent Roman, Tarquinius was exiled, the lead being taken by a rich citizen named Brutus, whose father's property he had seized.
It is whilst the Kings rules Rome that the roots of the the later Roman
constitution were laid down.
The King was appointed by the senate, an advisory body of patricians.
The King's rule was a total one. He possessed the right of capital punishment,
was responsibility for foreign relations and war, for public security, public
works, justice and proper maintenance of religion.
It was these Roman Kings whose symbols which later too in imperial Rome were
still born for the emperor which introduced the fasces as a symbol of
their power (an axe, tied in the centre of a bundle of rods).
Society was organized in a patriarchal way. The heads of this society, the Patricians
(derived from pater for father), stood each at the fore of a group of
clients, an extended body of hereditary hangers-on. The clients depended on
their patrician family for patronage and economic support. In return they gave
their labour and, if necessary, their military service.
Their was a sharp difference made between the patricians and the clients on the
one side and the plebeians (or plebs), the common people, on the
other.
The overall community was divided into three tribes. Each tribe was responsible
for providing 1000 men of infantry and 100 cavalry in times of war (which was
frequent!). Further each tribe was divided into 10 curiae. The
representatives of this curiae met with the King to discuss matters of
national importance. However, their role was purely advisory. The power lay with
the King.
Servius Tullius is credited with reforming the army, to whom he also granted the
status of a political assembly in its own right, the comitia centuriata.
Rome under the Kings is a far cry from primitive peasants living in huts.
Craftsmen plied their trades in the cities, organized by guilds, since the very
first King of Rome, Numa Pompilius.
However, contrary to the Greeks, this early Roman society did not use money. Far
more they bartered - salt for pottery, grain for wood, etc... Where the system
proved in adequate the Romans expressed value in for of 'heads of cattle'. One
such head of cattle was worth ten sheep. The head of cattle (pecus)became
the first Roman monetary unit. From this came the first Latin word for money - pecunia.
A primitive monetary system evolved based on ingots of raw copper of the Roman
pound (libra) of 327 g.
Such an ingot could then be broken up into yet different sizes and values.
King Servius was the first to have a stamp put onto the copper, until then it
was just the raw metal. The design to have been used supposedly was either an ox
or sheep.
It was from the Etruscans the Roman learnt there later famed ability in
engineering and architecture. Most significantly it was from the Etruscans that
they learnt to use the arch to bridge space. A feature not used by the Greeks.
The great temple to Jupiter was planned by Tarquinus Priscus, but it was his
grandson Tarquinus Superbus.
It was a project of some magnitude for the Rome of its day and it involved
forcing the plebs into labour in great numbers. Craftsmen being called
upon from Etruria as well as Latium. Many Roman craftsmen being forced from
their private businesses to contribute for the public good.
During the era of the Kings also the sewers were begun to be built. Some reportedly 'large enough to drive a loaded hay-waggon to pass through'. Though this cloaca maxima (great sewer) was originally an open ditch, simply designed to drain the water from the valleys between the hills of Rome.
The fall of the kings appears to be largely due to a gradual development
toward democratic rule, much like in Greece, rather than to a singular event.
Also the growing use of forced labour made Tarquinus Superbus increasingly
unpopular. In any case a band of nobles, led by Lucius Junius, later called
Brutus, conspired against the King and overthrew him.
It is well possible that this revolt was part of a larger rebellion by several
Latin cities (Antium, Aricia and Tusculum) against a foreign Etruscan King.
However, Tarquinus was not killed in the revolt and escaped to the Etruscans, on
whose help he naturally could count. One Etruscan chief, known as Porsena,
occupied Rome for some time. But Porsena having narrowly survived an
assassination attempt was sufficiently unnerved to withdraw his garrison, taking
hostages.
Rome for some time lay under the continued threat of Etruscan intervention. But
the days of Etruscan dominance were over. Rome had won its independence.
Above: a
remaining arch of the Roman bridge in Aspendus.
225 mt long, the current Aspendus bridge spans the river Köprüçay, known in
ancient days as the Eurymedon. Though its current form (apparently built in a
slight zig-zag in order not to allow a straight line of fire for archers) is
owed largely to the 13 century recontruction of the bridge by Seljuk emperor
Aladdin Keykubat on top of the Roman foundations.
Right: the Roman bridgehead made of darker stone is visible in the foreground.
The
famous defensive barrier in the north of England was first built by order of
emperor Hadrian between AD 122 and 128 (though at that time only as an earth
fortification ith wooden parapets - the stone work was constructed later).
'Hadrian's Wall' is undoubtedly the most impressive surviving frontier of the
empire, running for 80 Roman miles from the inlet of the sea known as the Solway
Firth in the west of England to the mouth of the river Tyne in the east.
Cato the Elder
Sulla; Vatican Museum, Vatican City
Caesar
Museo della Civilta
Rome
Pompey
Museo della Civilta
Rome
Brutus
Capitoline Museums
Rome
Mark Antony
Octavian
Museo della Civilta
Rome
The Circus Maximus was of very ancient origin. Its basic facilities appear to date back as far as 329 BC. Today nothing really remains but the large space, cleared of any modern buildings in the 1930's, which once was filled by the massive structure which housed as many as 250'000 spectators.
Model of Rome in the days of
Constantine the Great,
Museo della Civilta, Rome
The Colosseum was begun by Vespasian was finished by Titus in AD 80. It is elliptical and measures 180 metres long and 156 wide. It could contain an audience of between 45'000 and 50'000 spectators.
The
Forum of Augustus, is dominated by the remains of the temple of Mars Ultor (Mars
the Avenger). The forum was built in celebration over Augustus' victory
(together with Marcus Antonius) over Caesar's murderers.
The Pantheon was initially built by Agrippa in the first century BC,
dedicated to the planetary gods. But the great rotunda was later built by
Hadrian (AD 118-128).
Picture of Empire
City of ROME
1200 beginning of the first iron age. The Prisci Latini
migrate to Italy from the Danube region.
c. 1000 Latins settle in Latium
c.1000 Beginning of Etruscan migrations into Italy
10th century bc first settlement on the Palatine Hill on the future
site of Rome
753 foundation of the city of Rome (according to Varro)
753-716 Rule of Romulus c. 750 Beginning of Greek colonization in Italy: foundation of Ischia,
Cumae (754), Naxos in Sicily (735), Syracuse (c.734)
c. 700 Etruscan civilization begins to flourish
c. 750-670 Septimonium: union of settlers of Palatine, Cermalus, Velia,
Fagutal, Cuspius, Oppius and Caelius
c. 650 Etruscan expansion into Campania
c. 625 historical founding of Rome
616-579 Reign of L. Tarquinius Priscus. Forum drained.
578-535 Reign of Servius Tullius. Treaty with Latins.
535-510 Reign of L. Tarquinius Superbus. Erection of the Capitoline
Temple. Treaty with Gabii. Roman territory extended to ca. 350 square miles.
510 Downfall of the last Tarquinian king, Tarquinius Superbus. Brutus
liberates Rome. Establishment of a republic headed by two magistrates (later
called consuls) elected annually.
510 Expulsion of the last Tarquinian king, Tarquinius Superbus. Brutus
liberates Rome. Establishment of a republic headed by two praetors (later called
consuls) elected annually
509 Treaty between Rome and Carthage
507 Consecration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol
504 Migration of the Sabine Claudii clan to Rome
501 Appointment of the first dictator
496 Battle of Lake Regillus between Rome and Latin League
494 First secession of the plebeians on the Mons Sacer, several
miles from Rome. Creation of the tribunes of the people.
493 Treaty with the Latins
491 Coriolanus impeached and condemned to exile
486 Wars with the Aequi and Volsci begin (continue with many intervals
for the next fifty years)
482-474 War with Veii
479 Veii wins the Battle of Cremera
474 The Greek city-states in Italy win a naval battle at Cumae and
crush Etruscan power in Campania
471 Creation of the concilium Plebis. Office of the tribunes
officially recognized
457 Aequi win Battle at Mt. Algidus. Cincinnatus becomes dictator for
sixteen days and rescues remaining Roman army
c. 451 Decemvirs tyrants of Rome. Code of the Twelve Tables lays the
basis for Roman law
449 Fall of the decemvirs. Powers of the tribunes defined.
447 Quaestors elected by the people
443 Censorship established
431 Decisive defeat of the Aequi at Mt. Algidus
428 Rome conquers Fidenae (from Veii)
421 Quaestors increased to four, open to plebeians
c. 396 The Roman dictator Camillus conquers Veii, one of the principal
Etruscan centers, after long siege. Introduction of military pay. Peace with the
Volsci.
390 (or 387!) Romans defeated by the Gauls under Brennus at the Battle
of Allia. Gauls sack Rome, only the Capitol is defended by the citizenry
388 Aequi defeated at Bola
386-5 Latins, Volsci and Hernici defeated
381 Tusculum conquered
c. 378 Erection of the Roman city wall traditionally but erroneously
credited to King Servius Tullius, who reigned two centuries earlier
377 Latins defeated after their capture of Satricum
367 Lex Liciniae Sextiae: Consulship restored, plebeians
admitted to the office of consul
366 First plebeian consul
361 Romans capture Ferentinum
359 Revolt of Tarquinii
358 Treaty with Latins
357 Maximum amount of interest fixed. Falerii revolts. Gauls raid
Latium.
356 First plebeian dictator
354 Alliance of Rome and Samnites
353 Caere defeated
351 First plebeian censor
349 Gallic raid checked
346 Defeat of Antium and Satricum
348 Treaty with the Carthaginians
343-1 First Samnite War, Romans occupy northern Campania
340-338 Latin War: Rome conquers the seaport of Antium
338 Latin League dissolved. Many cities granted full or partial
citizenship
337 First plebeian praetor
334 Alexander of Macedon begins his eastward campaign
332 Treaty with Tarentum (possibly 303 BC)
c. 330 Colony founded at Ostia
329 Privernum captured
328 Etruria and Campania annexed
326-304 Second Samnite War: Rome increases its influence in
southernmost Italy
321 Samnites entrap and defeat Roman army at Caudine Forks. Romans
forced to accept a truce. Rome surrenders Fregellae
c. 320 Colonies founded: Luceria (314, Canusium (318), Alba Fucens
(303), Carsioli (298), Minturnae (296), Sinuessa (296), thus extending Roman
sway into Apulia, the Abruzzi, and southern Italy
315 Luceria captured. Samnite victory at Lautulae. Capua revolts and
joins Samnites
314 Roman victory at Tarracina. Capua conquered
313 Fregellae and Sora captured
312 Censorship of Appius Claudius. Via Appia, connecting Rome and
Capua, and Aqua Appia begun
310 Treaties with Cortona, Perusia and Arretium
307 Revolt of Hernici
306 Anagnia conquered and granted limited citizenship
304 Aequi defeated. Under the censor Fabius Maximus Rullianus landless
new citizens are assigned to four tribes in the city
300 Lex Ogulnia: plebeians admitted to priestly offices
298-290 Third Samnite War: Rome becomes all-powerful in southern Italy
298 Rome captures Bovanium Vetus and Aufidena
295 Roman victory over Samnites, Gauls and Umbirnas at Sentinum
294 Samnite victory at near Luceria
293 Roman victory over Samnites at Aquilona
292 Falerii conquered
291 Venusia conquered
290 The Sabines submit to Roman rule and receive limited citizenship.
Peace with Samnites.
287 Lex Hortensia: conflict between social orders placated by
conceding same voting rights to all
283 Boii defeated at Lake Vadimo
282 Rome conquers territory still held by the Gauls along the
Adriatic, Roman Fleet attacked by Tarentum
280-275 War against king Phyrrus of Epirus
280 Phyrrus lands in Italy and defeats Romans at Heraclea
279 Roman defeat at Battle of Asculum
278 Roman treaty with Carthage. Pyrrhus leaves Italy for Sicily.
275 Pyrrhus returns to Italy but is defeated near Malventum and leaves
Italy for good.
272 Surrender of Tarentum
270 Capture of Rhegium
269 Earliest Roman minting of coins
268 Picentes conquered and granted limited citizenship
267 War with Sallentini. Capture of Brundisium
266 Apulia and Messapia reduced to alliance
264 Introduction of gladiatorial shows in Rome. Capture of Volsinii.
Roman alliance with Mamertines.
264-241 First Punic War: Rome comes to the defence of the Greek cities
in Sicily against Carthage
263 Hiero of Syracuse becomes ally of Romei
262 Capture of Agrigentum
261-260 Rome builds fleet
260 Naval victory of Mylae. Capture of Rhegium
259 Roman occupation of Corsica
257 Naval victory of Tyndaris
256 Naval victory of Ecnomus. Romans land in Africa
255 Romans defeated in Africa. Naval victory off Cape Hermaeum. Fleet
wrecked off Pachynus
254 Capture of Panormus
253 Roman fleet wrecked of Palinurus
250 Victory at Panormus. Siege of Lilybaeum
249 Carthaginian naval victory at Drepana
247 Hamilcar Barca begins Carthaginian offensive in western Sicily
241 Naval victory off Aegates Insulae. Peace with Carthage. Occupation
of Sicily which is made a Roman province. Construction of the Via Aurelia from
Rome to Pisa
238 Romans oust Carthaginians from Sardinia and Corsica
237 Hamilcar goes to Spain
236 Gallic raids in northern Italy
230 Hasdrubal succeeds Hamilcar in Spain
229 First Illyrian War Roman influence established on Illyrian coast
226 Treaty defining river Iberus (Ebro) as border of influence between
Rome and Carthage
225-222 Celtic War: conquest of Cisalpine Gaul
225 Invading Gauls defeated at Telamon
223 Flaminius defeats insubres
222 Battle of Clastidium. Surrender of Insubres
221 Hannibal succeeds Hasdrubal in Spain
220 Censorship of Flaminius. Via Flaminia begun
219 Second Illyrian War. Conquest of Illyria. Hannibal captures
Saguntum.
218-201 Second Punic War
218 Hannibal crosses Alps and arrives in northern Italy. Battle of
Ticinus and Battle of Trebia.
217 Roman defeat at Lake Trasimene. Naval victory off river Iberus (Ebro)
216 Roman defeat at Cannae. Capua revolts.
215 Hannibal in southern Italy. Alliance of Carthage with Philip of
Macedon and with Syracuse after death of Hiero. Hasdrubal defeated at Dertosa.
214-205 First Macedonian War
213 Hannibal occupies Tarentum (except for the citadel). Roman siege
of Syracuse.
212 Siege of Capura
211 Introduction of the denarius coin. Hannibal's march on
Rome. Fall of Capua and Syracuse. Defeat of the Scipios in Spain.
210 Fall of Agrigentum. Scipio lands in Spain.
209 Recapture of Tarentum. Capture of Carthago Nova.
208 Death of Marcellus. Battle of Baecula.
207 Hasdrubal defeated at Metaurus
206 Battle of Ilipa near Seville: Carthaginian rule collapses in Spain
205 Scipio in Sicily.
204 Cult stone of the mother goddess brought from Asia Minor to Rome.
Scipio lands in Africa.
203 Scipio defeats Syphax and wins battle of the Great Plains.
Hannibal recalled to Carthage. Mago defeated in Gaul.
202 Scipio's victory at Zama. Rome succeeds Carthage as ruler of the
western Mediterranean. Aggressions of Philip and Antiochus.
200-197 Second Macedonian War
197 Macedonians war ends with defeat of Philip V by T. Quinctius
Flamininus at Cynoscephalae. Spain organized into two provinces. Revolt of
Turdenati in Spain. Antiochus occupies Ephesus.
196 Marcus Porcius Cato consul
195 Hannibal exiled, joins Antiochus. Masinissa starts raids on
Carthaginian territory.
192-188 Rome wars against King Antiochus II of Seleucia
191 Antiochus defeated at Thermopylae. Antiochus' fleet defeated off
Corycus.
190 The Scipios in Greece. Antiochus' fleet defeated.
189 Antiochus defeated at Magnesia, Campanians enrolled as citizens.
Fall of Ambracia. Peace with Aetolia. Manlius raids Galatia/
188 Peace of Apamea means end of war with Antiochus
187 Construction of Via Aemilia and Via Flaminia
184 Cato censor.
184/3 Death of Scipio
183/2 Death of Hannibal
181-179 First Celtiberian War
179 Accession of Perseus to the throne of Macedon
172 Two plebeian consuls in office for the first time
171-168 Third Macedonian War
168 Defeat of Macedonian King Perseus at Pydna
167 Epirus plundered. Macedon divided into four parts, Illyricum into
four.
157-155 Campaigns in Dalmatia and Pannonia
154-138 Lusitanian War
153-151 Second Celtiberian War
151 Carthage declares war on Masinissa
149-146 Third Punic War
149 Siege of Carthage begun. Rising of Andriscus in Macedonia.
147 Scipio Aemilianus takes Carthage. Macedonia annexed as a Roman
province
146 Destruction of Carthage. Africa annexed as a province. Achaean
War: Rome wars against the league of Greek cities. Corinth destroyed by the
Romans
143-133 Third Celtiberian War (also called Numantine War)
142 Censorship of Scipio Aemilianus. Stone bridge over the Tiber.
137 Defeat and surrender of Mancinus in Spain
135-132 Slave War in Sicily
134 Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus becomes people's tribune in the
absence of the Consul Scipio Aemilianus. His assassination in 133 sparks open
class conflict in Rome
133 King Attalus II bequeaths Pergamum by Testament to Rome. Scipio
Aemilianus sacks Numantia and settles Spain.
129 Death of Scipio Aemilianus. Province of Asia organized.
124 War against Arverni and Allobroges in Gaul
If anything, the Romans had a practical attitude to religion, as to most
things, which perhaps explains why they themselves had difficulty in taking to
the idea of a single, all-seeing, all-powerful god.
In so far as the Romans had a religion of their own, it was not based on any
central belief, but on a mixture of fragmented rituals, taboos, superstitions,
and traditions which they collected over the years from a number of sources.
To the Romans, religion was less a spiritual experience than a contractual
relationship between mankind and the forces which were believed to control
people's existence and well-being.
The result of such religious attitudes were two things: a state cult, the
significant influence on political and military events of which outlasted the
republic, and a private concern, in which the head of the family oversaw the
domestic rituals and prayers in the same way as the representatives of the
people performed the public ceremonials.
However, as circumstances and people's view of the world changed, individuals
whose personal religious needs remained unsatisfied turned increasingly during
the first century AD to the mysteries, which were of Greek origin, and to the
cults of the east.
Most of the Roman gods and goddesses were a blend of several religious
influences. Many were introduced via the Greek colonies of southern Italy. Many
also had their roots in old religions of the Etruscans or Latin tribes.
Often the the old Etruscan or Latin name survived but the deity over time became
to be seen as the Greek god of equivalent or similar nature. And so it is that
the Greek and Roman pantheon look very similar, but for different names.
An example of such mixed origins is the goddess Diana to whom the Roman king
Servius Tullius built the temple on the Aventine Hill. Essentially she was an
old Latin goddess from the earliest of times.
Before Servius Tullius moved the center of her worship to Rome, it was based at
Aricia.
There in Aricia it was always a runaway slave who would act as her priest. He
would win the right to hold office by killing his predecessor. To challenge him
to a fight he would though first have to manage to break off a branch of a
particular sacred tree; a tree on which the current priest naturally would keep
a close eye. From such obscure beginnings Diana was moved to Rome, where she
then gradually became identified with the Greek goddess Artemis.
It could even occur that a deity was worshipped, for reasons no-one really could remember. An example for such a deity is Furrina. A festival was held every year in her honour on 25 July. But by the middle of the first century BC there was no-one left who actually remember what she was actually goddess of.
Most form of religious activity required some kind of sacrifice. And prayer could be a confusing matter due to some gods having multiple names or their sex even being unknown. The practice of Roman religion was a confusing thing.
The Roman was by nature a very superstitious person. Emperors would tremble and even legions refuse to march if the omens were bad ones.
Superstitious RomansFortuna fortibus favet (Fortune favors the brave) Good and bad luck in ancient Rome was controlled by the goddess Fortuna, who could be persuaded to favor or smite a person by certain actions. Do any of the following look familiar? Many ancient Roman superstitions have survived to this day. |
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Bringers of Bona Fortuna:
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Bringers of Mala Fortuna:
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The Roman state religion was in a way much the same in essence as that of the
individual home, only on a much larger and more magnificent scale.
State religion looked after the home of the Roman people, as compared to the
home of an individual household. Just as the wife was supposed to guard the
hearth at home, then Rome had the Vestal Virgins guard the holy flame of Rome.
And if a family worshipped its lares, then, after the fall of the
republic, the Roman state had its deified past Caesars which it paid tribute to.
And if the worship of a private household took place under guidance of the
father, then the religion of state was in control of the pontifex maximus.
If the pontifex maximus was the head of Roman state religion, then
much of its organization rested with four religious colleges, whose members were
appointed for life and , with a few exceptions, were selected among
distinguished politicians.
The highest of these bodies was the Pontifical College, which consisted of the rex
sacrorum, pontifices, flamines and the vestal virgins.
Rex sacrorum, the king of rites, was an office created under the early
republic as a substitute for royal authority over religious matters. Later he
might still have been the highest dignitary at any ritual, even higher than the pontifex
maximus, but it became a purely honorary post.
Sixteen pontifices (priests) oversaw the organization of religious
events. They kept records of proper religious procedures and the dates of
festivals and days of special religious significance.
The flamines acted as priests to individual gods: three for the major
gods Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, and twelve for the lesser ones. These
individual experts specialized in the knowledge of prayers and rituals specific
to their particular deity.
The flamen dialis, the priest of Jupiter, was the most senior of the flamines.
On certain occasions his status was equal to those of the pontifex maximus
and the rex sacrorum.
Though the life of the flamen dialis was regulated by a whole host of
strange rules.
| Some of the rules surrounding the flamen dialis included. | He was not allowed to go out without his cap of office. He was not allowed to ride a horse. If a person was into the house of the flamen dialis in any form of fetters he was to be untied at once and the shackles pulled up through the skylight of the house's atrium on to the roof and then carried away. Only a free man was allowed to cut the hair of the flamen dialis. The flamen dialis would neither ever touch, nor mention a goat, uncooked meat, ivy, or beans. For the flamen dialis divorce was not possible. His marriage could only be ended by death. Should his wife have died, he was obliged to resign. |
The college of Augurs consisted of fifteen members. Theirs was the tricky job
of interpreting the manifold omens of public life (and no doubt of the private
life of the powerful).
No doubt these consultants in matters of omens must have been exceptionally
diplomatic in the interpretations required from them. Each of them carried as
his insignia a long, crooked staff. With this he would mark a square space on
the ground from which he would look out for auspicious omens.
The quindecemviri sacris faciundis were the fifteen members of a college
for less clearly defined religious duties. Most notably they guarded the
Sibylline Books and it was for them to consult these scriptures and interpret
them when requested to do so by the senate. The Sibylline books being evidently
understood as something foreign by the Romans, this college also was to oversee
the worship of any foreign gods which were introduced to Rome.
Initially there was three members to the college of epulones (banqueting managers), though later their number was enlarged to seven. Their college was by far the newest, being founded only in 196 BC. The necessity for such a college obviously arose as the increasingly elaborate festivals required experts to oversee their organization.
There was not a month in the Roman calendar which did not have its religious
festivals.
And the very earliest festivals of the Roman state were already celebrated with
games.
The consualia (celebrating the festival of Consus and the famous 'rape of
the Sabine women'), which was held on 21 August, also was the main event of the
chariot racing year. It can hence hardly be a coincidence that the underground
granary and shrine of Consus, where the opening ceremonies of the festival were
held, was accessed from the very center isle of the Circus Maximus.
But apart from the consualia August, the sixth month of the old calendar,
also had festivals in honour of the gods Hercules, Portunus, Vulcan, Volturnus
and Diana.
Festivals could be somber, dignified occasions, as well as joyful events.
The parentilia in February was a period of nine days in which the
families would worship their dead ancestors. During this time, no official
business was conducted, all temples were closed and marriages were outlawed.
But also in February was the lupercalia, a festival of fertility, most
likely connected with the god Faunus. Its ancient ritual went back to the more
mythical times of Roman origin. Ceremonies began in the cave in which the
legendary twins Romulus and Remus were believed to have been suckled by the
wolf. In that cave a number of goats and a dog were sacrificed and their blood
was daubed onto the faces of two young boys of patrician families. Dressed in
goatskins and carrying strips of leather in their hands, the boys would then run
a traditional course. Anyone along the way would be whipped with the leather
strips. However, these lashings were said to increase fertility. Therefore women
who sought to get pregnant would wait along the course, to be whipped by the
boys as they passed.
The festival of Mars lasted from 1 to 19 March. Two separate teams of a dozen
men would dress up in armour and helmet of ancient design and would then jump,
leap and bound through the streets, beating their shields with their swords,
shouting and chanting. The men were known as the salii, the 'jumpers'.
Apart from their noisy parade through the streets, they would spend every
evening feasting in a different house in the city.
The festival of Vesta took place in June and, lasting for a week, it was an
altogether calmer affair. No official business took place and the temple of
Vesta was opened to married women who could make sacrifices of food to the
goddess. As a more bizarre part of this festival, all mill-donkeys were given a
day of rest on 9 June, as well as being decorated with garlands and loaves of
bread.
On 15 June the temple would be closed again, but for the vestal virgins and the
Roman state would go about its normal affairs again.
The survival of a religious faith depends on a continual renewal and
affirmation of its beliefs, and sometimes on adapting its rituals to changes in
social conditions and attitudes. To the Romans, the observance of religious
rites was a public duty rather than a private impulse. their beliefs were
founded on a variety of unconnected and often inconsistent mythological
traditions, many of them derived from the Greek rather than Italian models.
Since Roman religion was not founded on some core belief which ruled out other
religions, foreign religions found it relatively easy to establish themselves in
the imperial capital itself. The first such foreign cult to make its way to Rome
was the goddess Cybele around 204 BC.
From Egypt the worship of Isis and Osiris came to Rome at the beginning of the
first century BC Cults such as those of Cybele or Isis and Bacchus were known as
the 'mysteries', having secret rituals which were only known to those initiated
into the faith.
During the reign of Julius Caesar Jews were granted freedom of worship in the
city of Rome, in recognition of the Jewish forces which had helped him at
Alexandria.
Also very well known is the cult of the Persian sun god Mythras which reached
Rome during the first century AD and found great following among the army.
Traditional Roman religion was further undermined by the growing influence of
Greek philosophy, particularly Stoicism, which suggested the idea of there being
a single god.
| The Roman Pantheon The Roman Gods |
| Name | Origin where known | Picture | Characteristics |
| Annona | Mythical personification of the annual food supply | ||
| Apollo | Greek | Good of healing and prophecy | |
| Asclepius | Greek | God of healing | |
| Attis | Phrygian | Beloved of Cybele | |
| Bacchus | Greek as Dionysos | God of wine | |
| Bellona | Goddess of War | ||
| Bona Dea | The 'Good Goddess'; unnamed spirit whose rites were attended only by women | ||
| Cardea | Household goddess of door hinges | ||
| Castor & Pollux (Dioscuri) | Greek | Two legendary heroes | |
| Ceres | Greek as Demeter | Goddess of agriculture | |
| Consus | God of the granary | ||
| Cybele | Phrygian | See 'Magna Mater' | |
| Diana | Greek as Artemis | Goddess of light, also unity of peoples | |
| Dis | Greek as Pluto | God of the underworld | |
| Faunus | Greek as Pan | God of fertility | |
| Flora | Goddess of fertility and flowers | ||
| Forculus | Household god of doors | ||
| Fortuna (also Fors, Fors Fortuna) | Goddess of good luck | ||
| Genius | Male spirit of the Roman family | ||
| Glaucus | A sea God | ||
| Hercules | Greek as Herakles | God of victory and commercial enterprise | |
| Hermes | See Mercury | ||
| Isis | Egyptian | Goddess of the earth | |
| Janus | God of doorways | ||
| Juno | Greek as Hera | Goddess of women | |
| Jupiter (English Jove) | Greek as Zeus | God of the heavens | |
| Juturna | Goddess of fountains | ||
| Lar (plural Lares) | a Spirit of the household | ||
| Larvae (or Lemures) | mischievous spirits of the dead | ||
| Liber | God of fertility and vine growing | ||
| Libitina | Goddess of the dead | ||
| Limentinus | Household god of the threshold | ||
| Magna Mater | Phrygian as Cybele | The 'Great Mother', goddess of nature | |
| Magnes | Spirits of the dead | ||
| Mars | God of war | ||
| Mercury | Greek as Hermes | God of merchants | |
| Minerva | Greek as Athena | Goddess of crafts and industry | |
| Mithras | Persian as Mithra | God of the sun | |
| Neptune | Greek as Poseidon | God of the sea | |
| Nundina | Presiding Goddess at the purification and naming of children | ||
| Ops | God of of the wealth of the harvest | ||
| Osiris | Egyptian | Consort of Isis | |
| Pales | God/Goddess of shepherd | ||
| Penates | Household spirits of the store cupboard | ||
| Picumnus & Pilumnus | Agricultural gods associated with childbirth | ||
| Pomona | Goddess of fruit | ||
| Portunus | God of harbours | ||
| Priapus | God of fertility in gardens and flocks | ||
| Quirinus | State god under whose name Romulus was worshipped | ||
| Robigus | God of mildew | ||
| Roma | Goddess of Rome | ||
| Sabazius | Phrygian | God of vegetation | |
| Salus | God of health | ||
| Serapis | Egyptian | God of the sky | |
| Saturn | Greek as Chronos | God of sowing | |
| Silvanus | God of woods and fields | ||
| Sol | Helios | God of the sun | |
| Tellus | Goddess of earth | ||
| Terminus | God of property boundaries | ||
| Venus | Greek as Aphrodite | Goddess of love | |
| Vertumnus (also Vortumnus) | God of orchards | ||
| Vesta | Greek as Hestia | Goddess of the hearth | |
| Volturnus | God of the Tiber river | ||
| Vulcan | Greek as Hephaistos | God of fire |
ROMAN HIPPODROME
The Hippodrome was an ancient Roman design to hold horse and chariot racing.The most famous one-The Circus Maximus- was 600 metres long and 200 metres wide. It could hold up to 250,000 people (1/4 the population of Rome).
It was built into a hillside, and the material dug out was used to create support on the other side of the building. Seats ran in tiers around the u-shaped arena (except for the open end ). A fence ran down the middle - called a Spine- to make laps.
Chariots were pulled by 2 - 4 horses, and were driven seven times around the ring at extremely fast speeds. Great skill was needed and sometimes a lot of accidents happened, and drivers were often trampled to death. Big crowds turned out to see the teams. There were four teams - reds, white, blues and greens - and each team, and their fans wore these colours. Huge bets were placed on the races.
At one end of the track, there were 12 boxes, where the chariots wait. The judges sat above, who announced the start of the race, by dropping a white handkerchief. The rope in front of the horses was lifted and the race began.
Drivers were famous and made a lot of money; Gaius Apuleis, charioteer of the reds, a Spaniard, aged 42 years , 7 months and 23 days. He drove his first chariot for the whites in AD 122. He won his first victory with the reds in AD 131.
Grand Totals; he drove for 24 years, started 4,257 races and won 1,462 of them. In all he won a total of 35,863,120 sesterces (an inscription found in Rome). The Emperor's palace was behind the Circus Maximus, and he had a special box where he could sit without even leaving the grounds of the palace. He attended most of the races that took place.
The races were an occasion to dress up. The ladies all dressed up in their best gowns, as did the men. People wore a lot of jewellery. Even the horses sometimes had pearls threaded into their manes and tails.
ROMAN ARMY
From early times right down to the 3rd century A.D, the Roman army was based on its legions. A legion varied in strength from 4,000 to 6,000 men, and was subdivided onto ten cohorts. Its leader used the title of legatus. His staff officers were called tribuni. Senior non-commissioned officers were called centurions, who varied greatly in rank. The soldiers of the legion were picked men: They were all Roman citizens and received a higher pay than the auxillary troops - that is, foreigners who serve with the Roman army.
A legion consisited of heavily armoured infantry (foot soldiers). The Roman infantry became a feared force, well disciplined and well trained. Their weapons were two pila or javelins each and a short thrusting gladius or sword. Cavalry was supplied by the auxilaries ( second line troops ) and was organised mainly in units 500 strong.
When it was on campaigns the army was accompanied by a number of specialists. One was the camp commandant, who was responsible for the organisation of the camp. The Romans were very careful about their camps - no Roman army halted for a single night without digging a trenches and fortifying its camp. Each soldier took his share in establishing the camp and striking the camp the next day. Another specialist was the quaestor, whose duty was to look after all the money matter. then there were the engineers and all kinds of craftsmen and artisans. They were responsible for siege operations and for the rather primative Roman"artillery", which consisted of big catapults and complicated machines a little like crossbows. These were mainly used for hurling big rocks and stones at the walls of a defence place. The engineers also had to build the moveable towers that were used in sieges - the Roman soldiers went up inside these towers so that they could see over the walls of a fortified place and shoot their stones and arrows into it. The engineers also made the scaling ladders that were used for getting over walls.
The Roman soldiers won their battles just as much from their staying - power as by their courage. They had to be strong and fit, for in addition to his weapons each soldier had to carry provisions for two weeks and tools for pitching camp.
When the soldiers went into line of battle to fight, the formation was called acies;when they were marching in column it was called agmen. If during a battle the legion were hard pressed the soldiers formed an orbis, which was very like the square that the British army formed in the 18th and 19th centuries if it was in difficulties. The standard of a legion was the aquila ,or eagle - made of silver or bronze and showing the bird with outstretched wings. It was the greatest disgrace if the eagle was captured.
At its finest period the Roman army was almost inconquerable. There were three main reasons for this :
ROMAN CLOTHING
Women wore a tunica which was adapted from the Greek chiton. The tunica was usually knee-length. Over this the women wore a stola which was a full length from neck to ankle, high- waisted and fastened at the shoulders with clasps. The stola was usually either white, brown or grey, though some were brightly coloured with vegetable dyes. A shawl, called a palla, was worn wrapped around the shoulders and arm, or could be draped over yhe head. Cloaks were worn to keep warm.
Men wore a knee-length tunic, either sleeveless or short-sleeved. Roman men wore a toga over their tunic, which was like a wide shawl that was draped over the shoulder and carefully wrapped around the body. A cloak was worn at night and during winter for warmth, and as protection against rain and wind.
Children wore tunics with wide sleeves. Children of patricians (nobels / upper classes) wore a tunic with narrow strips until the age of sixteen, when it was replaced by a white tunic.
Roman dress differed from one class to another. The tunic was worn by plebians (common people), herdsmen and slaves was made from a coarse dark material. The tunic worn by patricians was made from white woll or linen. Magistrates wore the tunic augusticlavia, and senators wore a tunic with broad strips, tunica laticlavia. Military tunics were shorter than those worn by civilians.
A Roman could tell how important or wealthy a person was from their toga. Free Roman men wore the toga instead of a cloak. It was originally an Etruscan garment worn in earlier times by both men and women of all classes. The toga was made from white wool or white Egyptian linen. It was square or rectangular in shape and was worn draped around the body.
The toga was worn often during state occasions. Consuls and senators wore a toga edged with purple. Some Roman senators wore white tigas that were ten metres long. Some emperors' togas were made entirely from either purple or black cloth. Black togas, though, were usually only worn in times of mourning.
Footwear also defined a person's position in society. Women wore closed shoes that were either white, green or yellow. Men wore sandals. Patricians wore red sandals with an ornament at the back. Senators wore brown footwear with black straps which wound round the leg to mid-calf, where the straps were tied. Consuls wore white shoes, and soldiers, heavy boots.
Cleaning clothes at home was difficult because of the lack of water and cleaning equipment. The task of cleaning clothes was left to fullers, who are shown in wall paintings treading clothes with their feet. Clothes were also treated with sulpher and urine, and brushed with combs.
Most early Roman jewelery resembled Greek and Etruscan jewelery, but Roman styles eventually deleloped. The Romans were fond of coloured stones such as topaz, emeralds, rubies and sapphires. Pendants, especially cameos in gold frames, were popular
Wigs were worn by men as a disguise and to hide baldness. Fashionable women wore hair-pieces that were often made from the hair of slave girls. Chalk powder, charcoal and saffron were used as cosmetics. Men had trimmed beards or were close-shaven.
Hats were not worn except by slaves but women were expected to cover their heads when walking outdoors.
NOTE: ALL INFORMATION TAKEN FROM:
http://ireland.iol.ie/~coolmine/typ/romans/intro.html
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/6946/
OTHER LINKS
http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/
http://members.aol.com/Donnclass/Romelife.html